Expert System Industry In China

The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms emphasizing science and technology as the country’s main productive force.

The initial phases of China’s AI development were slow and experienced substantial difficulties due to absence of resources and talent. At the starting China lagged the majority of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually gotten greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has actually progressively established a nationwide agenda for synthetic intelligence development and emerged as one of the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it aimed to become an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI teams” including fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company must lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s quick AI development has significantly impacted Chinese society in many areas, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and production are the top industries that would be the most impacted by more AI deployment.

The personal sector, university labs, and the armed force are working collaboratively in lots of elements as there are few present existing borders. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade limitations meant to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship regime on the development of generative artificial intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and advancement of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and technology for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research and advancement did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a generally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was challenging so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional providing government funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on artificial intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s national technology plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually even more broadened its research and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research tasks has actually dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, artificial intelligence was also discussed in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of synthetic intelligence. The first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This event coincided with the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable turning point in China’s development of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the plan described AI as a strategic technology that has become a “focus of global competition”. [14]:2 The document advised significant investment in a number of tactical areas related to AI and required close cooperation between the state and private sectors. On the occasion of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an essential component to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The same year witnessed the emergence of several application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council stated the need for massive talent acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, in addition to public and personal investments. [14] Some of the mentioned inspirations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI strategy consist of the capacity of synthetic intelligence for commercial improvement, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the development of big language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively provided the regulations worrying deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services safety requirements, including requirements for data collection and model training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and intends to construct AI policy dialogue with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed issue over AI safety dangers, consisting of abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started using news anchors developed with generative artificial intelligence to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which plans to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The fourth and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

Since 2024, many Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be crucial to the future of global military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its location as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the main driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to blend state planning and control while some functional versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market protections, creating uneven advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a top research top priority and ranks AI first among “frontier markets” that the Chinese federal government aims to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector frequently supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI funding mainly concentrated on advanced and applied research study. [38] The federal government funding also supported several AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research study revealed that, while China is massively buying all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on developing China’s modern industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and local industrial advancement and environment. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competition for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic surveillance network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play an essential function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private partnerships, and international partnerships and projects with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the overall number of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has been proactive in managing AI services and imposing obligations on AI business, the total technique to its policy is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population generates a massive quantity of available data for companies and scientists, which offers a crucial benefit in the race of huge information. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest variety of internet users, creating huge quantities of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial acknowledgment is one of the most widely employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of data from its homeowners assists further train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however likewise uses tremendous financial potential attracting both worldwide and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic development of the details and communication innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft measures mentioning that tech business will be obligated to make sure AI-generated material maintains the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal obligation for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not “prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a large language design to the public, companies must seek approval from the CAC to certify that the model refuses to address particular questions relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a business that preserves libraries containing training information sets typically used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers regional business with training information that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has warned that the Chinese government utilizes generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political issues. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to respond to concerns relating to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most firms [who?] hold optimistic views about AI‘s financial impact on China’s long-term economic growth. In the past, traditional markets in China have actually struggled with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional costs are expected to reduce while an increase in effectiveness produces income development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to conquer adoption barriers consisting of costs and absence of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively affected by China’s AI development since of rising needs for workers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial development is focused in coastal regions rather than inland. [61]

A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to develop a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on using unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching different kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards revealed a computer simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and destroying a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense development and fears of a broadening “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China intends to use AI for making use of large chests of intelligence, producing a typical operating picture, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, choice assistance, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few borders exist in between Chinese industrial business, university lab, the military, and the main government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of assisting AI development priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To further enhance these ties the Chinese federal government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from business companies and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of information labeling to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the prospective to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, potentially giving it legal access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese venture capital investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial nations,” from buying U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] sophisticated tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its design use restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, especially considering that China deals with obstacles in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have been working in the field for over ten years, while approximately the very same proportion of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research study products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China particularly want to deal with military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently established the very first children’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the very first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with particular focus on user security, information privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people shall stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI concepts requiring vital needs in long-lasting research and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most common topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and many national governments have actually established legislation attending to data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to attend to new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative framework classifying all type of data collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are needed to classify their information into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the evidence provided and applies pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial information can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology companies might deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually sought to encourage private tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to worldwide AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards protecting a global technological dominance – China missed out on both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to take advantage of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the national renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities showed remarkably keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise focus on cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China” and “financing, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale necessary change.” [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have unparalleled resources and huge untapped potential, however the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research culture. Rather than fret about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the advancement of AI develops obstacles for holistic national security, consisting of the risks that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing results on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will result in greater injustice of workers and more major social problems. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to greater capital build-up and political power in less financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the main accountable star in the location of generative AI (producing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI dangers intensifying military competitors between countries which the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country however will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have happened. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is usually positive relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted across 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI outweigh the dangers, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university students found that 80% concurred or strongly agreed that AI will do more great than damage for society, and 31% believed it must be regulated by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively utilized AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, deployment of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang region to find Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a federal government intentionally using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of discontent are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, especially by local municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of artificial intelligence companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.