Expert System Industry In China

The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and innovation as the country’s main productive force.

The initial stages of China’s AI development were sluggish and experienced significant challenges due to lack of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged many Western nations in terms of AI development. A bulk of the research was led by scientists who had gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has gradually developed a nationwide agenda for synthetic intelligence advancement and became among the leading countries in expert system research and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” consisting of fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company needs to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s fast AI development has actually considerably impacted Chinese society in numerous areas, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and production are the top markets that would be the most impacted by further AI deployment.

The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in many aspects as there are few current existing borders. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law dealing with AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions intended to limit China’s access to advanced computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the development of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of artificial intelligence in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s economic growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and advancement did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a generally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was hard so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more offering federal government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on artificial intelligence was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has actually further broadened its research and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study jobs has actually drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy top priority for the development of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, expert system was likewise discussed in the l lth five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of synthetic intelligence. The first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a significant turning point in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a tactical innovation that has become a “focus of global competition”. [14]:2 The document prompted substantial investment in a of strategic locations related to AI and called for close cooperation between the state and economic sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is an essential element to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The exact same year saw the development of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study lab in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council stated the requirement for enormous skill acquisition, theoretical and useful advancements, in addition to public and private investments. [14] A few of the mentioned motivations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI technique include the potential of synthetic intelligence for industrial transformation, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies across foundational, technical, and application layers, with associated industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the development of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system released China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively provided the policies worrying deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, including requirements for information collection and design training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and intends to construct AI policy dialogue with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed concern over AI security dangers, including abuse of information or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors created with generative synthetic intelligence to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which intends to incorporate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The 4th and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

Since 2024, many Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have introduced AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI technology will be crucial to the future of worldwide military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make basic contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its location as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the main driving force for China’s commercial updating and economic improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to blend state planning and control while some functional flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, producing uneven benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a leading research top priority and ranks AI initially amongst “frontier markets” that the Chinese federal government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI funding generally concentrated on advanced and applied research study. [38] The federal government funding also supported multiple AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study showed that, while China is enormously buying all aspects of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on establishing China’s high-tech commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and regional industrial advancement and ecosystem. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, heavily focuses on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play an important role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private partnerships, and international cooperations and projects with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the overall number of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing commitments on AI business, the general approach to its guideline is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population generates a huge amount of accessible data for companies and researchers, which uses an important advantage in the race of huge information. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of web users, generating big amounts of data for device knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial acknowledgment is one of the most commonly used AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of data from its citizens helps more train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and valuable for corporations to further AI R&D however also uses incredible financial possible attracting both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the information and communication technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets over the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft measures stating that tech companies will be obligated to ensure AI-generated content supports the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal duty for training data and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced material may not “incite subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a big language model to the general public, companies must look for approval from the CAC to certify that the model refuses to respond to particular concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries containing training information sets commonly utilized for large language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local companies with training information that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually cautioned that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese synthetic intelligence design DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to address questions relating to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most firms [who?] hold positive views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-lasting financial development. In the past, conventional markets in China have actually struggled with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, functional costs are expected to decrease while an increase in efficiency creates revenue development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to conquer adoption barriers including costs and lack of effectively trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI development due to the fact that of rising demands for workers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related industrial advancement is concentrated in coastal regions instead of inland. [61]

An influential choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to build a “world-class” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on the use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching various kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial cars at an airshow. A media report released later on revealed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and ruining a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and fears of a broadening “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China aims to use AI for exploiting big troves of intelligence, producing a common operating picture, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software application, decision support, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of limits exist between Chinese business companies, university lab, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct ways of assisting AI advancement priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI technology from commercial companies and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of information identifying to develop the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily appropriate AI applications, potentially approving it legal access to U.S. technology and intellectual property. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to avoid foreign investments, “particularly those from rival or adversarial nations,” from investing in U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its design use prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, especially given that China deals with challenges in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have actually been working in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the same percentage of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research products. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the variety of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China particularly desire to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently established the very first children’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific emphasis on user defense, information privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI concepts requiring vital needs in long-term research and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and many nationwide governments have actually developed legislation resolving data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to new obstacles raised by AI advancement. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative framework classifying all kinds of information collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are needed to classify their data into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and deal with information transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes connected to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI assesses the evidence provided and uses appropriate legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology companies might deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary area of judges are intentional objectives of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually gotten attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has sought to motivate private tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to global AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting a global technological supremacy – China missed both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government officials demonstrated incredibly keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and global security. This consists of understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise focus on cultivating knowledge and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “funding, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive massive required change.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China might have unequaled resources and massive untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading expertise and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be sensible for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI creates difficulties for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the threats that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will result in higher oppression of employees and more severe social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital build-up and political power in less financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the main accountable star in the area of generative AI (developing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI risks intensifying military competition between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation however will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have actually taken place. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is typically positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study carried out throughout 28 nations found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI exceed the dangers, the greatest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees found that 80% concurred or strongly concurred that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% believed it needs to be managed by the government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly used AI facial acknowledgment has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang region to identify Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a government purposefully using artificial intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, areas experiencing greater rates of discontent are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, specifically by regional municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.